POLITICAL-RELIGIOUS SITUATION OF ISRAEL IN THE NEW TESTAMENT

In the context of the New Testament, the Jewish nation was not homogeneous. On the contrary, it was divided into several groups and parties with distinct doctrines, ideologies, and traditions, sometimes driven by political and sometimes by religious motivations. In this sense, Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, Zealots, and Herodians formed the main political parties and religious sects of that time. We will see the characteristics of these groups. HERODIANS The Herodians were the defenders of Roman domination in Palestine. They were in the service of Herod and were the most fierce persecutors of subversive movements. The gospels also mention them (Mark 3:6; 12:13; Matthew 22:16). They had characteristics of a partisan group supporting the Herodian dynasty, which owed its power to the Roman occupying forces. The Herodians opposed Jesus, fearing that He could promote public disturbances through His moral teachings. They were driven more by political interests than by religious ones, so much so that they did not have an apparent orthodoxy.

TAX COLLECTORS AND PUBLICANS

Tax collectors, or publicans, were the collectors of taxes and duties destined for the Roman Empire. For this reason, they were hated by the people. It was often said: “Only tax collectors are thieves.” They were compared to sinners of the worst kind. When a Jew exercised this sad office, and especially when he collected taxes destined for Rome from his brothers, he was treated with great contempt. There are several passages in the Gospels in which tax collectors are compared to sinners: Jesus ate with tax collectors and sinners, which is why the disciples were questioned by the Pharisees (Matthew 9:13); Jesus was accused of being a glutton and a winebibber, as well as a friend of tax collectors and sinners (Matthew 11:19); Jesus irritated the scribes and Pharisees when they saw Him in the company of sinners and tax collectors (Mark 2:16); The scribes and Pharisees, dissatisfied, murmured against Jesus' disciples, asking why they ate and drank in the company of tax collectors and sinners (Luke 5:30; 15:1-2); Among the twelve disciples, there was a former tax collector (Matthew 9:9).

SADDUCEES AND PRIESTS

The Sadducees were the dominant religious, economic, and political party at the time of Jesus. The majority of the priests belonged to them. Favorable to the Roman presence, they were materialists and did not believe in the resurrection or angels. Despite their small number, the Sadducees represented the dominant aristocracy of Judaism in New Testament times. The name of this group probably comes from Sadoc, the father of the line of high priests during the reign of Solomon (1 Kings 1:32-34,38-45). They formed the highest echelon of priests and part of the Sanhedrin and exercised significant political influence. Unlike the Pharisees, who recognized the importance of oral tradition, the Sadducees accepted only the written Law (Torah). Influenced by Hellenism and pagan culture, it was a materialistic and secularized religion that denied the existence of the spiritual world (Acts 23:8) and did not believe in the resurrection of the dead (Mark 12:18) or in the afterlife. For them, life was limited to the here and now, over which God had no influence. Regarding this group, Jesus told his disciples to beware of their “leaven” (Matthew 16:6), a symbol of evil and corruption.

PHARISEES AND SCRIBES

The Pharisees, or separated ones, were a lay party close to the people. They were admired by the people, even though they despised them. Their intransigence distinguished them, as well as their strict observance of the Law and high moral level.

They believed in the Resurrection, in angels, and awaited the Messiah. In more significant numbers than the Sadducees, the Pharisees (parash: “to separate”) represented the most rigid nucleus of Judaism, formed basically by people from the middle class and with significant influence among the people (John 12:42-43). They were meticulous about complying with the Law of Moses; for this reason, most of the scribes (Matthew 15:1; 23:2) belonged to this group.

They emphasized oral tradition more than the literalness of the law. In addition to placing great value on religious traditions, such as washing hands before meals (Mark 7:3) and collecting tithes (Matthew 23:23), the Pharisees fasted regularly (Matthew 9:14) and emphasized Sabbath observance (Matthew 12:1-8). However, they were greedy (Luke 16:14) and, in their prayers, liked to boast about their moral attributes (Luke 18:11-12). Because of their legalism, Jesus boldly rebuked them (Matthew 23:1-32), calling them lovers of the first place, hypocrites, and blind guides, because their religiosity was based on the exterior, on rituals and self-righteousness, in contempt of the most essential part of the Law: judgment, mercy and faith. One example was the invocation of the tradition of Corban (Mark 7:11) as a subterfuge to avoid taking care of their parents in their old age, saying that their goods had been consecrated as an offering to God and the Temple and, therefore, could not be used. Jesus said that they had invalidated the law by tradition (Mark 7:13). This is why Jesus declared to his disciples: “[...] unless your righteousness exceeds that of the scribes and Pharisees, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven” (Matthew 5:20).

ESSENES

The Essenes were a group initially linked to the clergy of Jerusalem but who left in protest. They withdrew to the desert to embody a genuine experience of the Jewish faith, with intense community life and cultivation of the messianic hope. In Jesus’ time, some people wanted to fight against the Romans. Others wanted to live with the Romans. The Essenes chose to live in isolation as a response to the “crazy” world in the first century. They formed a community on the northwest shore of the Dead Sea. There, the Essenes believed they could live as the “true” people of God.

They rejected Herod, the Temple, and the Pharisees. In their minds, they alone were the true Israel. They created a pure community from which the Messiah would come to redeem Israel (in fact, they believed that God would send two Messiahs, one a priest and the other a king). They called themselves “the sons of light,” and the Messiah would use them to reestablish the kingdom of Israel. The Gospels do not mention the Essenes. The Romans destroyed the Essene community before they set out for Jerusalem. Many believe that it was the Essenes who wrote the Dead Sea Scrolls. They were very strict in their interpretation of the commandments of the Torah. They maintained an eschatological perspective on life and spoke of the end of days, wars, God, final destruction, and judgment. Because of this belief in the imminent end, some of their members chose celibacy rather than marrying and raising a family.

The Essenes were not pacifists, but they did not appear to be violent and did not support the revolutionary efforts of the Zealots. As a group, they protested against the Sadducees and their corrupt management of the Temple. They also opposed the Pharisees because of their traditions and innovative approaches to interpreting the Torah. Upon admission to the sect, all people gave their property to a fund that was equally available to all. They bathed before meals and dressed in white. Furthermore, they considered themselves “children of light” and lived completely separate from the Judaism of Jerusalem, which they considered apostate.

ZEALOTS

The Zealots were members of the Jewish party that opposed Roman domination because they considered it incompatible with the sovereignty of the God of Israel. In more turbulent times, they resorted to violence. They kidnapped and murdered political opponents. The Sicarii were a wing of the Zealots and were so called because they carried a hidden dagger. They were a subversive movement characterized by violent attacks. The Zealots formed an extremist group that used rebellion and violence against Roman domination because they believed that such submission was a betrayal of God. Simon, called “the Zealot” (Luke 6:15), had an experience with the Lord Jesus, experiencing a change of life and heart concerning all the activities of the Zealots.